question and answer
Contents
1. Newsgroup and Internet Resources
2. What is meditation?
3. How is meditation different from relaxation, thinking,
concentration or self-hypnosis?
4. What are the different meditation techniques?
5. Which is right for me?
6. What are the abc's of meditation?
7. Is there any religious implication or affiliation
with meditation?
8. Does meditation have any ethical implications?
9. What is the best time of day to meditate?
10. Why do some people use music while meditating?
11. Should I meditate with my eyes open or with my eyes closed?
12. What are the physiological effects of meditation?
13. When I meditate I experience physical pain in my body. What
should I do?
14. How long should I meditate?
15. Do I need a teacher?
1. Newsgroup and Internet Resources
The general charter of alt.meditation, which was created on
April 7 1993, is something like:
---- General discussion of meditation
alt.meditation is a place for discussion of the various
techniques of meditation and their relation to both physiological
changes associated with practice and the more subjective ideas
regarding self-awareness and self-understanding.
FTP (sunsite.unc.edu -- login anonymous)
/pub/academic/medicine/alternative-healthcare/
discussion-groups/newsgroups/alt.meditation Newsgroup Archives
/pub/academic/medicine/
alternative-healthcare/meditation Book Suggestions
World-Wide Web
http://www.spiritweb.org/Spirit/meditation.html Misc
http://www.prosperityplace.com/gethigh.html Instructions
http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/WEagle/txtmedi1.htm "
http://www.unidata.com/~ucc01/creative.htm Creativity
http://altavista.digital.com Search
http://www.dejanews.com Search
2. What is meditation?
The basic idea generally associated with why people meditate
is that during our day we are constantly subjected to sensory
input and our minds are always active in the process of thinking.
We read the newspaper, study books, write reports, engage in
conversation, solve problems, etc etc. Typically, as we do these
normal activities we engage in a constant mental commentary, sort
of an inner "The Drama of Me." Usually people aren't fully
aware of all the mental thought activity that we are
constantly engaged in.
Meditation allows all this activity to settle down, and often
results in the mind becoming more peaceful, calm and focused. In
essence, meditation allows the awareness to become 'rejuvenated'.
Meditation can be considered a technique, or practice. It usually
involves concentrating on an object, such as a flower, a candle, a
sound or word, or the breath. Over time, the number of random
thoughts occuring diminishes. More importantly, your attachment to
these thoughts, and your identification with them, progressively
become less. The meditator may get caught up in a thought pattern,
but once he/she becomes aware of this, attention is gently brought
back to the object of concentration. Meditation can also be
objectless, for example consisting of just sitting.
Experiences during meditation probably vary significantly from
one individual to another, or at least if different techniques
are involved. Relaxation, increased awareness, mental focus and
clarity, and a sense of peace are the most common by-products of
meditation. While much has been written about the benefits of
meditation, the best attitude is not to have any expectations
when practicing. Having a sense of expectation of (positive)
results is likely to create unnecessary strain in the practice.
As well, since meditation involves becoming more aware and
more sensitive to what is within you, facing unpleasant parts
of oneself may well be part of meditation. Regardless of the
experience, the meditator should try to be aware of the
experience and of any attachment to it.
Failure to experience silence, peace of mind, mental clarity,
bliss, or other promoted benefit of meditation is not in itself
a sign of incorrect practice or that one can't concentrate
properly or concentrate enough to be good at meditation.
Whether one experiences peace or bliss is not what is important.
What is generally considered important in meditation is that one
is regular with their meditation -every day- and that one make
a reasonable effort, but not strain, to remain with the object
of concentration during the practice. With regular practice
one inevitably acquires an increased understanding of and
proficiency with the particular meditation technique.
Some people use the formal concentrative meditation as a
preliminary step to practicing a mindfulness meditation during
the day where one tries to maintain a calm but increased awareness
of one's thoughts and actions during the day.
For some people, meditation is primarily a spiritual practice, and
in some cases the meditation practice may be closely tied to the
practice of a religion such as, for example, Hinduism or Buddhism.
3. How is meditation different from relaxation, thinking,
concentration or self-hypnosis?
Relaxation: Relaxation is a common by-product of
meditation. Relaxation itself can assume many
forms, such as taking a hot bath or reclining in the
Lazy-boy and watching tv, etc. Meditation is an active
process where the meditator remains fully aware of
what the awareness is doing. It also attempts to transcend
the thought process whereas many forms of relaxation still
engage the thought process. Meditation allows the
body to relax and can offset the effects of stress
both mentally and physically to a potentially much
greater degree than passive relaxation.
Thinking: Thoughts generally consume energy in the process
of their formation. Constant thought-activity, especially
of random nature, can tire the mind and even bring on
headache. Meditation attempts to transcend this crude
level of thought activity. Through regular practice one
becomes aware that they are not their thoughts but that
there is an awareness that exists independent of thought.
Descartes ("I think, therefore I am") obviously was not
a regular meditator!
Concentration: Meditation begins with concentration, but after
an initial period of concentration, thought activity decreases
and keeping the awareness focused becomes more spontaneous.
At this point the person may or may not continue to employ
the object of concentration.
Self-hypnosis: Self-hypnosis, like meditation, involves at
least an initial period of concentration on an object. However
in hypnosis one does not try to maintain an awareness of the
here-and-now, or to stay conscious of the process. Instead
one essentially enters a sort of semi-conscious trance.
4. What are the different meditation techniques?
Meditation involves concentrating on something to take
our attention beyond the random thought activity that
is usually going on in our heads. This can involve a
solid object or picture, a mantra, breath, or guided
visualization.
Typical objects employed include a candle flame or a
flower. Some people use pictures, such as a mandala - a
highly colored symmetric painting - or a picture of a
spiritual teacher in a high meditative state. Mantras
are sounds which have a flowing, meditative quality
and may be repeated out loud or inwardly. The breath
is also a common focal point. Finally, guided visualization
is also considered by some to be a form of meditation.
A guided visualization can help to bring one into a
meditative state; also, visualization may be used once
a meditative state has been reached to produce various
results.
5. Which is right for me?
There is no "right" meditation technique for everybody.
Some techniques work better for certain people while other
techniques work better for other people. The important
thing is to find what works for you.
6. What are the abc's of meditation?
There are a few recommended guidelines for meditation:
+ It should be done every day, preferably at the same time
+ It should preferably be done before a meal rather than
after a meal
+ A spot should be set aside for meditation, which should
be a quiet place and used for nothing but meditation
+ One should sit with the spine straight and vertical
(a chair is ok to use)
7. Is there any religious implication or affiliation
with meditation?
Meditation has been and still is a central practice in
eastern religions, for contacting "God" or one's higher
Self. Christianity also has semblances of meditation,
such as the biblical statement "The kingdom of heaven
is within you". Churches have a meditative atmosphere.
Meditation deals with contacting something within us
that is peaceful, calm, rejuvenating, and meaningful.
Whether one calls this something "God" or "soul" or
"the inner child" or "theta-wave activity" or "peace"
or "silence" is not important. It is there and anyone
can benefit from it regardless of what they believe.
Most people in the world have already meditated. If
you have relaxed looking at a beautiful sunset, allowing
your thoughts to quiet down, this is close to meditation.
If you have been reading a book for awhile, then put it
down to take a break and just sat there quietly and
peacefully for a few minutes without thinking, this is
close to meditation.
8. Does meditation have any ethical implications?
In many traditions meditation practice is a means for
reinforcing ethical qualities. In these traditions, calmness of mind,
peacefulness and happiness are possible in meditation and in life
generally only if they are accompanied by the observance of ethical
norms of behaviour.
9. What is the best time of day to meditate?
While meditation is beneficial at any time, most people
who meditate agree that early morning is the best time
to meditate. Part of the reason is that it is said that
in early morning the hustle-and-bustle of the world has
not yet begun and so it is easier to establish a
meditative atmosphere. Having an early morning meditation
also lets us carry some of the energy and peace of the
meditation into our daily activities.
Many people also meditate either before dinner or later
in the evening. Others also meditate at noon. A short meditation
at these times allows one to throw off some of the
accumulated stress of the work-day and become rejuvenated for
further activity. An important consideration is when your
schedule will allow you to meditate. Having a time of the day
set aside for meditation helps in maintaining regularity.
10. Why do some people use music while meditating?
Meditative music (not rock-n-roll !) can help in establishing
a meditative atmosphere. Also, some people find meditation
relatively easy but find that the hard thing is to actually
get themselves to sit down and start their meditation. Music
can help make this easier. Some people use music quite often
while others prefer silent meditation and never use it.
11. Should I meditate with my eyes open or with my eyes closed?
Different traditions give different answers. Closing your eyes
may contribute to drowsiness and sleepiness--if that's the case for
you then try opening them a little. Opening your eyes may be
distracting. If that's the case try closing your eyes or direct
your gaze on a blank wall (Zen-style). Or try with the eyes open
halfway or a bit more, the gaze unfocussed and directed downward,
but keeping the head erect with the chin slightly tucked in.
Sometimes meditators experience headaches from focussing on a
spot too close to the eyes (perhaps closer than three feet).
Whether focussed or unfocussed, the gaze should be relaxed in
order to prevent eyestrain or headache.
Experiment and see what works for you and then stick with your
choice of technique. If you are using a candle, flower, or other
visual object in your meditation then here the technique itself
requires your eyes to be at least partly open.
12. What are the physiological effects of meditation?
The most common physiological effects of meditation are
reduced blood pressure, lower pulse rate, decreased
metabolic rate and changes in the concentration of serum
levels of various substances.
13. When I meditate I experience physical pain in my body. What
should I do?
Sensations (itching/aches/pains/etc.) can arise in the body when
meditating for several reasons. Sometimes the cause is just an
uncomfortable posture--make sure that your posture is comfortable
under normal circumstances. Other times the cause is that sensations
in the body are more noticable in meditation. The body and mind are
calmer and you are able to notice more details in your bodily
experience. It is often interesting to simply observe these sensations
in your body : to use them as the objects of meditation. Sometimes
these sensations just go away without your having to move or change
your posture. Remember that a quiet body contributes to a quiet mind.
14. How long should I meditate?
When first learning meditation it is usually not possible
to meditate for more than 10-15 minutes. After regular
practice for awhile, one becomes able to meditate for
longer periods of time. Many people meditate twice-daily
for 20-30 minutes each time, but the right duration and
frequency is for each individual to decide.
15. Do I need a teacher?
It is theoretically possible to learn meditation from a
book. However most people who teach and practice meditation
agree that a teacher can be an invaluable aid in learning
a meditation technique and making sure it is practiced
correctly. The beginner will usually have several questions
which a teacher will be able to answer. Also, learning with
a group of people, eg a meditation class, allows you to
experience the benefit of meditating with a group of people.
Most people find that they have some of their best meditations
while meditating in a group, because there is a collective
energy and focus present.
Various individuals and groups teach meditation. Some charge
and some do not. Many different techniques are taught, some
more spiritual in nature and others mainly concerned with
stress-reduction and gaining a little peace of mind. As always,
the important thing is finding what works for you.
Science Explores Meditation’s Effect on the Brain
Science Explores Meditation’s Effect on the Brain
Listen Now [8 min 54 sec] add to playlist
A meditation class inside the Dharma Hall at the Barre Center for Buddhist Studies. Courtesy Barre Center for Buddhist Studies
Morning Edition, July 26, 2005 · People who meditate say it induces well-being and emotional balance. In recent years, a group of neuroscientists has begun investigating the practice, dubbed “mindfulness.” As NPR’s Allison Aubrey reports, they are exploring the hypothesis that meditation can actually change the way the brain works.
Web Extra: Mindfulness for the Masses
By Katie Unger
Scientists are taking advantage of new technologies to see exactly what goes on inside the brains of Buddhist monks and other so-called “Olympian” meditators — individuals who meditate intensively and regularly. The neuroscientists hypothesize that regular meditation actually alters the way the brain is wired, and that these changes could be at the heart of claims that meditation can improve health and well-being.
But the rigors of the scientific method might never have been applied to studying the practice of meditation if it weren’t for a vocal population of scientist-meditators. For decades, several of these individuals have been spreading the word about the beneficial effects of this traditional Eastern practice to the Western world.
In 1998, Dr. James Austin, a neurologist, wrote the book Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness. Several mindfulness researchers cite his book as a reason they became interested in the field. In it, Austin examines consciousness by intertwining his personal experiences with Zen meditation with explanations backed up by hard science. When he describes how meditation can “sculpt” the brain, he means it literally and figuratively.
Before Austin, others had aimed to teach meditation to individuals without experience and without interest in spirituality, people who hoped to reap mental and physical health benefits. In 1975, Sharon Salzberg and Jack Kornfield co-founded the Insight Meditation Society in Barre, Mass., where they continue to practice and teach meditation. Salzberg has written several books, including Faith and Lovingkindness: The Revolutionary Art of Happiness. Kornfield holds a Ph.D. in clinical psychology and trained as a Buddhist monk in Thailand, Burma and India. He’s written an introduction to the field, called Meditation for Beginners.
Jon Kabat-Zinn brought mindfulness into the mainstream by developing a standardized teaching method that has introduced multitudes of beginners to the practice of meditation. In 1979, he founded the Stress Reduction Clinic at the University of Massachusetts Memorial Medical Center in Worcester. He is professor emeritus of the university’s medical school. Kabat-Zinn has written several books that show readers how to incorporate meditation into their daily lives.
One center with which Kabat-Zinn has had a long-standing association — the Mind and Life Institute — took a particular interest in partnering “modern science and Buddhism — the world’s two most powerful traditions for understanding the nature of reality and investigating the mind.” The institute sponsors scientific conferences for meditation researchers. At the most recent one, scientists discussed how meditation might change activity levels in the brain.
Some 150 centers around the country are shaped in the mold of Kabat-Zinn’s Stress Reduction Clinic, and about 150 more teach meditation with slightly different philosophies.
More than 1,000 peer-reviewed scientific articles have been published on the subject of meditation. Until recently, most of them simply observed correlations between meditating and improved mood or decreased disease symptoms. But with so many scientists — and thousands of consumers — becoming “believers” in meditation, researchers seek to move beyond simply showing that meditation can influence the brain, to knowing exactly how that influence is accomplished.
Katie Unger is an intern for NPR’s science desk.
TESOL
TESOL’s English for Specific Purposes Interest Section (ESPIS) is open to TESOL members who are interested in research and instruction designed to meet the unique English language needs of students and working adults in specific areas of study and employment by providing special training beyond that which is normally acquired by the average English speaker. The IS fosters the sharing of ideas, expertise, and specialized curricula among ESP practitioners to promote quality research, education, and professional development in ESP.
Explore the English for Specific Purposes Section:
Access the Latest English for Specific Purposes Documents:
- ESPIS Statement of Purpose/Goals
- English for Specific Purposes IS E-Newsletter Mission Statement
Read the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Interest Section e-newsletter mission statement. - Instructions for Using TESOL’s Electronic Discussion Lists
Instructions for TESOL’s electronic discussion lists: join, troubleshoot if not receiving e-list email, send messages, reply to messages, troubleshoot if not able to send to the e-list, unsubscribe, read discussion forum or search archives, retrieve password and settings, update email address, select email delivery settings, and contact list administrator. - Governing Rules of English for Specific Purposes – Feb. 2007 (45 KB PDF)
Governing Rules of English for Specific Purposes An Interest Section of TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages). TESOL’s English for Specific Purposes Interest Section exists to serve the needs of those teachers, program developers, consultants and researchers who are interested in the design and delivery of courses for individuals with identifiable academic and professional goals.
Visit the English for Specific Purposes Links:
Course Purpose and Goals
Course Purpose and Goals
Although theories of learning and teaching may be interdisciplinary, educational methods and techniques are specific to subject areas. This is true in the case of computer technology in language education. While general education computer courses may provide an overview of computer use for current and future teachers, they do not address issues specific to the teaching and learning of second/foreign language through the technology.This course is intended to give participants a broad general view of computer-enhanced language teaching and learning. It will involve participants in exploring a working theory of language learning environments, using and discussing existing and potential applications of computer technology in the language classroom, and creating projects to use and test knowledge gained through reading, discussion, and hands-on experience.
Format and Philosophy This course is designed for pre-service and in-service teachers, technology consultants, administrators, and all others interested in computer-enhanced language learning. It is an introductory workshop course at the graduate level; this means that, in addition to perusing the literature and discussing the research, participants will be involved in hands-on discovery and creation. To fulfill this purpose, the class has been developed as a part seminar, part technical training, and part hands-on workshop. Topics covered include means and ways to communicate and collaborate with technology, software/website evaluation and integration, creation and evaluation of online tasks and student assessment. Methods/ techniques appropriate to second/foreign language classrooms will be integrated into class sessions as will technology, and the focus will be on building a learning community among participants.
Objectives
With the focus on theories and practices of computer-assisted language learning, the participants in this course will be able to:
- Create appropriate contexts in which language learners interact and negotiate meaning in the computer-assisted classroom.
- Understand how to integrate technology into language learning environments.
- Effectively evaluate software and technology-based projects and activities for use in their own language classrooms.
- Develop new computer-enhanced tasks and adapt existing computer-based tasks to suit the needs of their learners.
- Understand the importance and use of on-going assessment in the computer-enhanced language classroom.
Course Materials
While textbooks have been required in this course in past, this semester all required readings will be available online (Oncourse and E-Reserves).
Participant Responsibilities
As professionals, we’ll work together in this course to improve our knowledge, competence, and understanding in our own and other areas of language education. Each of us in this class will know more in some areas and less in others; each participant will take on the role of mentor in some situations and novice in others. In all of these contexts, you should expect from yourself and the other participants very high standards of professional conduct.
Activities and Evaluation
The final course grade is the percentage of total points earned out of the total 300. For example, more than 294 points or 98% = A+, 282-293 points or 94% = A, etc. If you do not understand this system, please ask immediately! Participants will receive their grades via e-mail and can request a written grade report.Due dates for activities can be found in the course schedule.
| Activities |
Description |
Point Value |
| Forum Discussion |
Participation in the electronic discussion forum includes asking questions, answering questions, sharing information, and so on, in a variety of ways.
Assessment is based on the number and quality of your contributions. This means that you should ask thought- provoking questions, give thoughtful comments, and raise critical problems or issues. You should also address other people’s questions, concerns, and comments in a friendly and supportive way. No personal attacks are allowed (we really don’t think this would happen, but just in case). We can all learn a lot from each other through idea exchange and sharing. Most importantly, a successful electronic discussion takes the form of a conversation. Simply posting questions and answers results in a dry, boring conversation that treats the discussion as simply a chore. This is your space, your class, and your learning. Take advantage of the expertise that your classmates possess and the functionality that the technology provides. And…have fun! |
70 |
| General Participation |
Participation is crucial to the success of the class as a whole and your learning in particular. You will explore technologies, theories, and the application of each to teaching by yourself and collaboratively with a partner(s).
During the semester you and one or more class participants will be responsible for facilitating our class discussion. This is not only to support the philosophy of a learning community but also to give you an opportunity of being an online group facilitator. Many of us are used to being a teacher or a lecturer, always telling people what to do. Being a facilitator is very different. You must figure out a way to link us all together without dominating discussions. Each week, there will be one starter who will open the discussion and ask questions and one wrapper who will summarize the readings and the forum discussion. The list of starters and wrappers will be announced in the Forum. |
30 |
| Interactive Class Reflection |
Every two weeks you will write a reflection to describe what went well and what could have gone better in the class, what you learned/didn’t learn, wish you had learned, and what your plan is for learning more. You will send your brief (one page or less) reflection through e-mail to the instructor, who will respond in a timely fashion. Points are earned for completing this activity as instructed. Due dates are noted on the schedule.
|
20 |
| MSN Messenger Download and Use |
Collaboration is extremely important in teaching. MSN Messenger and other similar programs are tools to help you communicate and work with fellow professionals in a synchronous and friendly manner. You are to download the program and to demonstrate the ability to use it.
|
20 |
| Website/Software Evaluation |
It is quite important for us to have a critical eye on the material that we want to use. This activity aims to help you to evaluate websites/software that are available in your area. You can find the guidelines here (MS Word document). This will be posted on the Oncourse discussion forum.
|
20 |
| External Documents |
You’ll have the chance to add additional information/activities to accompany a piece of software or a Website so that it meets you information and examples here. This will be posted on the Oncourse discussion forum.
|
20 |
| Web Page |
Creating web pages allows you to put your work online so that your students will have easy access to it at all times. You will develop a web page using an editor that allows you to create the page quickly without using HTML.
|
30 |
| Online Quiz/ Editing Project |
Assessment is an important part of teaching. To help you assess your students’ work, we will use the editing tool in Word with which you will comment and edit a student essay. You also have to option to create quizzes using programs like Hot Potatoes that allow you to easily configure web-based quizzes.
|
30 |
| WebQuest |
In this project you and your teammates will build on the strengths of the Internet and World Wide Web to create materials for language teachers world-wide. You’ll be facilitated in this process by outside experts. For more information, look here.
|
60 |
| Bonus Activities |
These activities are made available for you to try *on your own* and to challenge yourself to learn something new. There are several to choose from and the activities vary in levels of difficulty.
|
10 |
English language learning and teaching
English language learning and teaching
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from English as a second language)
Jump to: navigation, search
See also: Language education and Second language acquisition
“ESL” redirects here. For other uses, see ESL (disambiguation).
ESL (English as a second language), ESOL (English for speakers of other languages), and EFL (English as a foreign language) all refer to the use or study of English by speakers with a different native language. The precise usage, including the different use of the terms ESL and ESOL in different countries, is described below. These terms are most commonly used in relation to teaching and learning English, but they may also be used in relation to demographic information.
ELT (English language teaching) is a widely-used teacher-centred term, as in the English language teaching divisions of large publishing houses, ELT training, etc. The abbreviations TESL (teaching English as a second language), TESOL (teaching English for speakers of other languages) and TEFL (teaching English as a foreign language) are all also used.
Other terms used in this field include EAL (English as an additional language), ESD (English as a second dialect), EIL (English as an international language), ELF (English as a lingua franca), ESP (English for special purposes, or English for specific purposes), EAP (English for academic purposes). Some terms that refer to those who are learning English are ELL (English language learner) and LEP (limited English proficiency).
Contents [hide]
1 Terminology and types
1.1 English outside English-speaking countries
1.2 English within English-speaking countries
1.3 Umbrella terms
1.4 Which variety to teach
1.5 Systems of simplified English
2 Difficulties for learners
2.1 Pronunciation
2.2 Grammar
2.3 Vocabulary
2.4 Differences between spoken and written English
2.5 Varieties of English
3 Exams for learners
3.1 The Common European Framework
4 Qualifications for teachers
4.1 Non-native speakers
4.2 United States qualifications
4.3 British qualifications
5 Professional associations and unions
6 Acronyms and abbreviations
6.1 Types of English
6.2 Other abbreviations
7 References and notes
8 See also
8.1 Language terminology
8.2 General language teaching and learning
8.3 English language teaching and learning
8.4 Contemporary English
8.5 Other
9 External links
[edit] Terminology and types
The many acronyms used in the field of English teaching and learning may be confusing. English is a language with great reach and influence; it is taught all over the world under many different circumstances. In English-speaking countries, English language teaching has essentially evolved in two broad directions: instruction for people who intend to stay in the country and those who don’t. These divisions have grown firmer as the instructors of these two “industries” have used different terminology, followed distinct training qualifications, formed separate professional associations, and so on. Crucially, these two arms have very different funding structures, public in the former and private in the latter, and to some extent this influences the way schools are established and classes are held. Matters are further complicated by the fact that the United States and the United Kingdom, both major engines of the language, describe these categories in different terms: as many eloquent users of the language have observed, “England and America are two countries divided by a common language.” (Attributed to Winston Churchill, George Bernard Shaw, and Oscar Wilde.) The following technical definitions may therefore have their currency contested.
[edit] English outside English-speaking countries
EFL, English as a foreign language, indicates the use of English in a non-English-speaking region. Study can occur either in the student’s home country, as part of the normal school curriculum or otherwise, or, for the more privileged minority, in an anglophone country which they visit as a sort of educational tourist, particularly immediately before or after graduating from university. TEFL is the teaching of English as a foreign language; note that this sort of instruction can take place in any country, English-speaking or not. Typically, EFL is learned either to pass exams as a necessary part of one’s education, or for career progression while working for an organisation or business with an international focus. EFL may be part of the state school curriculum in countries where English has no special status (what linguist Braj Kachru calls the “expanding circle countries”); it may also be supplemented by lessons paid for privately. Teachers of EFL generally assume that students are literate in their mother tongue.
[edit] English within English-speaking countries
The other broad grouping is the use of English within the Anglosphere. In what theorist Braj Kachru calls “the inner circle”, i.e. countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, this use of English is generally by refugees, immigrants and their children. It also includes the use of English in “outer circle” countries, often former British colonies, where English is an official language even if it is not spoken as a mother tongue by the majority of the population.
In the US, Canada and Australia, this use of English is called ESL (English as a second language). This term has been criticized on the grounds that many learners already speak more than one language. A counter-argument says that the word “a” in the phrase “a second language” means there is no presumption that English is the second acquired language (see also Second language). TESL is the teaching of English as a second language.
In the UK, Ireland and New Zealand, the term ESL has been replaced by ESOL (English for speakers of other languages). In these countries TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is normally used to refer to teaching English only to this group. In the UK, the term EAL (English as an additional language), rather than ESOL, is usually used when talking about primary and secondary schools.[1]
Other acronyms were created to describe the person rather than the language to be learned. The term LEP (Limited English proficiency) was created in 1975 by the Lau Remedies following a decision of the US Supreme Court. ELL (English Language Learner), used by United States governments and school systems, was created by Charlene Rivera of the Center for Equity and Excellent in Education in an effort to label learners positively, rather than ascribing a deficiency to them. LOTE (Languages other than English) is a parallel term used in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
Typically, this sort of English (called ESL in the United States, Canada, and Australia, ESOL in the United Kingdom, Ireland and New Zealand) is learned to function in the new host country, e.g. within the school system (if a child), to find and hold down a job (if an adult), to perform the necessities of daily life. The teaching of it does not presuppose literacy in the mother tongue. It is usually paid for by the host government to help newcomers settle into their adopted country, sometimes as part of an explicit citizenship program. It is technically possible for ESL to be taught not in the host country, but in, for example, a refugee camp, as part of a pre-departure program sponsored by the government soon to receive new potential citizens. In practice, however, this is extremely rare.
Particularly in Canada and Australia, the term ESD (English as a second dialect) is used alongside ESL, usually in reference to programs for Canadian First Nations people or indigenous Australians, respectively.[2] It refers to the use of standard English, which may need to be explicitly taught, by speakers of a creole or non-standard variety. It is often grouped with ESL as ESL/ESD.
[edit] Umbrella terms
All these ways of teaching English can be bundled together into an umbrella term. Unfortunately, all the English teachers in the world cannot agree on just one. The term TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is used in American English to include both TEFL and TESL. British English uses ELT (English language teaching), because TESOL has a different, more specific meaning; see above.
[edit] Which variety to teach
It is worth noting that ESL and EFL programs also differ in the variety of English which is taught; “English” is a term that can refer to various dialects, including British English, American English, and others. Obviously, those studying English in order to fit into their new country will learn the variety spoken there. However, for those who do not intend to change countries, the question arises of which sort of English to learn. If they are going abroad for a short time to study English, they need to choose which country. For those staying at home, the choice may be made for them in that private language schools or the state school system may only offer one model. Students studying EFL in Hong Kong, for example, are more likely to learn British English, whereas students in the Philippines are more likely to learn American English.
For this reason, many teachers now emphasize teaching English as an international language (EIL), also known as English as a lingua franca (ELF). Linguists are charting the development of international English, a term with contradictory and confusing meanings, one of which refers to a decontextualised variant of the language, independent of the culture and associated references of any particular country, useful when, for example, a Saudi does business with someone from China or Albania.
[edit] Systems of simplified English
For international communication several models of “simplified English” have been suggested:
Basic English, developed by Charles Kay Ogden (and later also I. A. Richards) in the 1930s; a recent revival has been initiated by Bill Templer[3]
Threshold Level English, developed by van Ek and Alexander[4]
Globish, developed by Jean-Paul Nerrière
Basic Global English, developed by Joachim Grzega[5]
Furthermore, Randolph Quirk and Gabriele Stein thought about a Nuclear English, which, however, has never been fully developed[6].
[edit] Difficulties for learners
Language teaching practice often assumes that most of the difficulties that learners face in the study of English are a consequence of the degree to which their native language differs from English (a contrastive analysis approach). A native speaker of Chinese, for example, may face many more difficulties than a native speaker of German, because German is closely related to English, whereas Chinese is not. This may be true for anyone of any mother tongue (also called first language, normally abbreviated L1) setting out to learn any other language (called a target language, second language or L2). See also second language acquisition (SLA) for mixed evidence from linguistic research.
Language learners often produce errors of syntax and pronunciation thought to result from the influence of their L1, such as mapping its grammatical patterns inappropriately onto the L2, pronouncing certain sounds incorrectly or with difficulty, and confusing items of vocabulary known as false friends. This is known as L1 transfer or “language interference”. However, these transfer effects are typically stronger for beginners’ language production, and SLA research has highlighted many errors which cannot be attributed to the L1, as they are attested in learners of many language backgrounds (for example, failure to apply 3rd person present singular -s to verbs, as in ‘he make’).
While English is no more complex than other languages, it has several features which may create difficulties for learners. Conversely, because such a large number of people are studying it, products have been developed to help them do so, such as the monolingual learner’s dictionary, which is written with a restricted defining vocabulary.
[edit] Pronunciation
Consonant phonemes
English does not have more individual consonant sounds than most languages. However, the interdentals, /θ/ and /ð/ (the sounds written with th), which are common in English (thin, thing, etc.; and the, this, that, etc.) are relatively rare in other languages, even others in the Germanic family (e.g., English thousand = German tausend), and these sounds are missing even in some English dialects. Some learners substitute a [t] or [d] sound, while others shift to [s] or [z], [f] or [v] and even [ts] or [dz]).
Speakers of Japanese, Korean and Chinese varieties have difficulty distinguishing [r] and [l]. The distinction between [b] and [v] can cause difficulty for native speakers of Spanish, Japanese and Korean.
Vowel phonemes
The precise number of distinct vowel sounds depends on the variety of English: for example, Received Pronunciation has twelve monophthongs (single or “pure” vowels), eight diphthongs (double vowels) and two triphthongs (triple vowels); whereas General American has thirteen monophthongs and three diphthongs. Many learners, such as speakers of Spanish, Japanese or Arabic, have fewer vowels, or only pure ones, in their mother tongue and so may have problems both with hearing and with pronouncing these distinctions.
Syllable structure
In its syllable structure, English allows for a cluster of up to three consonants before the vowel and four after it (e.g., straw, desks, glimpsed). The syllable structure causes problems for speakers of many other languages. Japanese, for example, broadly alternates consonant and vowel sounds so learners from Japan often try to force vowels in between the consonants (e.g., desks /desks/ becomes “desukusu” or milk shake /mɪlk ʃeɪk/ becomes “mirukushēku”).
Learners from languages where all words end in vowels sometimes tend to make all English words end in vowels, thus make /meɪk/ can come out as [meɪkə]. The learner’s task is further complicated by the fact that native speakers may drop consonants in the more complex blends (e.g., [mʌns] instead of [mʌnθs] for months).
Unstressed vowels – Native English speakers frequently replace almost any vowel in an unstressed syllable with an unstressed vowel, often schwa. For example, from has a distinctly pronounced short ‘o’ sound when it is stressed (e.g., Where are you from?), but when it is unstressed, the short ‘o’ reduces to a schwa (e.g., I’m from London.). In some cases, unstressed vowels may disappear altogether, in words such as chocolate (which has four syllables in Spanish, but only two as pronounced by Americans: “choc-lit”.)
Stress in English more strongly determines vowel quality than it does in most other world languages (although there are notable exceptions such as Russian). For example, in some varieties the syllables an, en, in, on and un are pronounced as homophones, that is, exactly alike. Native speakers can usually distinguish an able, enable, and unable because of their position in a sentence, but this is more difficult for inexperienced English speakers. Moreover, learners tend to overpronounce these unstressed vowels, giving their speech an unnatural rhythm.
Stress timing – English tends to be a stress-timed language – this means that stressed syllables are roughly equidistant in time, no matter how many syllables come in between. Although some other languages, e.g., German and Russian, are also stress-timed, most of the world’s other major languages are syllable-timed, with each syllable coming at an equal time after the previous one. Learners from these languages often have a staccato rhythm when speaking English that is disconcerting to a native speaker.
“Stress for emphasis” – students’ own languages may not use stress for emphasis as English does.
“Stress for contrast” – stressing the right word or expression. This may not come easily to some nationalities.
“Emphatic apologies” – the normally unstressed auxiliary is stressed (I really am very sorry)
In English there are quite a number of words – about fifty – that have two different pronunciations, depending on whether they are stressed. They are “grammatical words”: pronouns, prepositions, auxiliary verbs and conjunctions. Most students tend to overuse the strong form, which is pronounced with the written vowel.
Connected speech
Phonological processes such as assimilation, elision and epenthesis together with indistinct word boundaries can confuse learners when listening to natural spoken English, as well as making their speech sound too formal if they do not use them. For example, in RP eight beetles and three ants /eɪt biːtəlz ənd θriː ænts/ becomes [eɪtbiːtl̩znθɹiːjæns].
See also: Accent reduction
[edit] Grammar
Tenses – English has a relatively large number of tenses with some quite subtle differences, such as the difference between the simple past “I ate” and the present perfect “I have eaten.” Progressive and perfect progressive forms add complexity. (See English verbs.)
Functions of auxiliaries – Learners of English tend to find it difficult to manipulate the various ways in which English uses the first auxiliary verb of a tense. These include negation (eg He hasn’t been drinking.), inversion with the subject to form a question (eg Has he been drinking?), short answers (eg Yes, he has.) and tag questions (has he?). A further complication is that the dummy auxiliary verb do /does /did is added to fulfil these functions in the simple present and simple past, but not for the verb to be.
Modal verbs – English also has a significant number of modal auxiliary verbs which each have a number of uses. For example, the opposite of “You must be here at 8″ (obligation) is usually “You don’t have to be here at 8″ (lack of obligation, choice), while “must” in “You must not drink the water” (prohibition) has a different meaning from “must” in “You must not be a native speaker” (deduction). This complexity takes considerable work for most learners to master.
Idiomatic usage – English is reputed to have a relatively high degree of idiomatic usage. For example, the use of different main verb forms in such apparently parallel constructions as “try to learn”, “help learn”, and “avoid learning” pose difficulty for learners. Another example is the idiomatic distinction between “make” and “do”: “make a mistake”, not “do a mistake”; and “do a favour”, not “make a favour”.
Articles – English has an appreciable number of articles , including the definite article the and the indefinite article a, an. At times English nouns can or indeed must be used without an article; this is called the zero article. Some of the differences between definite, indefinite and zero article are fairly easy to learn, but others are not, particularly since a learner’s native language may lack articles or use them in different ways than English does. Although the information conveyed by articles is rarely essential for communication, English uses them frequently (several times in the average sentence), so that they require some effort from the learner.
[edit] Vocabulary
Phrasal verbs – Phrasal verbs in English can cause difficulties for many learners because they have several meanings and different syntactic patterns. There are also a number of phrasal verb differences between American and British English.
Word derivation – Word derivation in English requires a lot of rote learning. For example, an adjective can be negated by using the prefix un- (e.g. unable), in- (e.g. inappropriate), dis- (e.g. dishonest), or a- (e.g. amoral), or through the use of one of a myriad of related but rarer prefixes, all modified versions of the first four.
Size of lexicon – The history of English has resulted in a very large vocabulary, essentially one stream from Old English and one from the Norman infusion of Latin-derived terms. (Schmitt & Marsden claim that English has one of the largest vocabularies of any known language.) This inevitably requires more work for a learner to master the language.
[edit] Differences between spoken and written English
As with most languages, written language tends to use a more formal register than spoken language. The acquisition of literacy takes significant effort in English.
Spelling – Because of the many changes in pronunciation which have occurred since a written standard developed, and the retention of many historical idiosyncrasies in spelling, English spelling is difficult even for native speakers to master. This difficulty is shown in such activities as spelling bees that generally require the memorization of words. English speakers may also rely on computer tools such as spell checkers more than speakers of other languages, as the users of the utility may have forgotten, or never learned, the correct spelling of a word. The generalizations that exist are quite complex and there are many exceptions leading to a considerable amount of rote learning. The spelling system causes problems in both directions – a learner may know a word by sound but not be able to write it correctly (or indeed find it in a dictionary), or they may see a word written but not know how to pronounce it or mislearn the pronunciation.
[edit] Varieties of English
There are thriving communities of English native speakers in countries all over the world, and this historical diaspora has led to some noticeable differences in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar in different countries, as well as those variations which exist between different regions, and across the social strata, within the same country. Even within the British Isles, there are significant regional language differences, differences of (i) pronunciation/accent, (ii) vocabulary, and even (iii) grammar/dialect, when the local dialect differs from that of another region or from the grammar of ‘received English’.
The world holds over 7000 languages, and most exist within only a small geographic area; even most of the top 100 are limited to a small number of countries or even a single state. Some of the more well-known languages are to some degree managed by a specific organisation that determines the most prestigious form of the language, e.g. French language and the Academie de la langue française or Spanish language and the Real Academia Española. Since many students of English study it to enable them to communicate internationally, the lack of a uniform international standard for the language poses some barriers to meeting that goal; see international English.
Teaching English therefore involves not only helping the student to use the form of English most suitable for his purposes, but also exposure to other forms of English (e.g. regional forms/ cultural styles) so that the student will be able to discern ‘meaning’ even when the words/grammar/pronunciation may be quite different to the form of English with which he has become more familiar.
[edit] Exams for learners
See a list of exams by clicking on the category “English language” at the bottom of the article, and then on “English language tests”
Learners of English are often keen to get accreditation and a number of exams are known internationally[7]:
Cambridge ESOL General English exams, a suite of five including First Certificate in English (FCE), Certificate in Advanced English (CAE) and Certificate of Proficiency in English (CPE)
IELTS (International English Language Testing System), accepted by most tertiary academic institutions in the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Canada, and by many in the USA.
Trinity College London ESOL offers several sets of exams: Graded Examinations in Spoken English (GESE), a suite of twelve exams. Integrated Skills in English (ISE), a suite of five exams. ESOL Skills for Life and ESOL for Work.
City and Guilds International ESOL and International Spoken ESOL on demand examinations available at six levels: Preliminary, Access, Achiever, Communicator, Expert and Mastery
London Tests of English from Pearson Language Assessments, a series of six exams each mapped to a level from the CEFR
TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), an Educational Testing Service product, developed and used primarily for academic institutions in the USA, and now widely accepted in tertiary institutions in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, the UK, and Ireland. The current test is Internet based, and is known as the TOEFL iBT. Used as a proxy for English for Academic Purposes.
TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication), an Educational Testing Service product for Business English
TSE – Test of Spoken English
TWE – Test of Written English
Many countries also have their own exams. ESOL learners in England, Wales and Northern Ireland usually take the national Skills for Life qualifications, which are offered by several exam boards. EFL learners in China may take the College English Test.
[edit] The Common European Framework
Between 1998 and 2000, the Council of Europe’s language policy division developed its Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. The aim of this framework was to have a common system for foreign language testing and certification, to cover all European languages and countries.
The Common European Framework (CEF) divides language learners into three levels:
A. Basic User
B. Independent User
C. Proficient User
Each of these levels is divided into two sections, resulting in a total of six levels for testing (A1, A2, B1, etc).
This table compares ELT exams according to the CEF levels:
CEF level ALTE level London Tests of English Trinity College London GESE Trinity College London ISE UBELT exam IELTS exam BEC & CELS exams Cambridge General English City and Guilds TOEIC* TOEFL*
C2 Level 5 Level 5 Grade 12 IV 4.0 – 5.0 7.5+ n/a CPE Mastery 910+ 276+
C1 Level 4 Level 4 Grade 10&11 ISE III 3.0 – 3.5 6.5 – 7 Higher CAE Expert 701 – 910 236 – 275
B2 Level 3 Level 3 Grade 7-9 ISE II 2.0 – 2.5 5 – 6 Vantage FCE Communicator 541 – 700 176 – 235
B1 Level 2 Level 2 Grade 5&6 ISE I 1.5 3.5 – 4.5 Preliminary PET Achiever 381 – 540 126 – 175
A2 Level 1 Level 1 Grades 3&4 ISE 0 1.0 3 n/a KET Access 246 – 380 96 – 125
A1 Breakthrough Level A1 Grade 2 n/a >1.0 1-2 n/a n/a Preliminary n/a n/a
The TOEIC and TOEFL exams are not part of the Common European framework, and the CEF levels can only be approximately equated to scores in these test. The origin of the scores in this table are uncertain.
[edit] Qualifications for teachers
[edit] Non-native speakers
Many non-native speaking teachers who only work in their own country are qualified with the relevant teaching qualification of that country. In Hong Kong, it is called Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers. Those who work in private language schools and in other countries often have the same qualifications as native speakers (see below).
[edit] United States qualifications
Most U.S. instructors at community colleges and universities qualify by taking an MA in TESOL. This degree also qualifies them to teach in most EFL contexts as well. In some areas of the country, nearly all elementary school teachers are involved in teaching ELLs (English Language Learners, that is, children who come to school speaking a home language other than English.) The qualifications for these classroom teachers vary from state to state but always include a state-issued teaching certificate for public instruction.
Teachers in all states require state licensing, which requires substantial practical field experiences and language pedagogy course work. The MA in TESOL includes both graduate work in English as one of the classical liberal arts (literature, linguistics, media studies) with a theoretical pedagogical component at the tertiary level. Admission to the MA in TESOL typically requires at least a bachelor’s degree with a minor in English or linguistics. A degree in a foreign language can sometimes also be considered sufficient for admission.
It is important to note that the issuance of a teaching certificate or license is not automatic following completion of degree requirements. All teachers must complete a battery of exams (typically the Praxis subject and method exams or similar, state-sponsored exams) as well as supervised instruction as student teachers. Certification requirements for ESL teachers vary greatly from state to state. Out-of-state teaching certificates are recognized by other states if the two states have a reciprocity agreement.
[edit] British qualifications
Common, respected qualifications for teachers within the United Kingdom’s sphere of influence include TESOL certificates and diplomas issued by University of Cambridge ESOL and Trinity College London ESOL.
A certificate course is usually undertaken before starting to teach. This is sufficient for most EFL jobs (see TEFL) and for some ESOL ones. CELTA (Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults) and CertTESOL (Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) are the most widely taken and accepted qualifications for new teacher trainees. Courses are offered in the UK and in many countries around the world. It is usually taught full-time over a one-month period; sometimes, or part-time over a period up to a year.
Teachers with two or more years of teaching experience and wanting to stay in the professiona and advance their career prospects can take a diploma course. To move into school management or become teacher trainers, teachers would also need a diploma. UCLES offers the DELTA (Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults) and Trinity College London ESOL offers the LTCL DipTESOL (Trinity Licentiate Diploma in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages). These diplomas are considered to be equivalent. They both are accredited in the UK at Level 7, as are Masters Degrees.
Some teachers who stay in the profession go on to do an MA in a relevant discipline such as applied linguistics or ELT. Note that UK master’s degrees require extensive preparation and experience in the field before a candidate is accepted onto the course; in this respect they are truly to master the knowledge and skills that the candidate already has.
The above qualifications are well-respected within the UK EFL sector. However, in England and Wales, in order to meet the government’s criteria for being a qualified teacher of ESOL in the Learning and Skills Sector (i.e. adult education), teachers need to have the Certificate in Further Education Teaching Stage 3 and the Certificate for ESOL Subject Specialists, both at level 4. Recognised qualifications which confer one or both of these include a PGCE in ESOL, the CELTA module 2 and City & Guilds 9488.
Teachers of children within the state sector in the United Kingdom are normally expected to hold the Post-Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE). They may choose to specialise in ELT. Teachers of adults (e.g. lecturers at universities or colleges, or teachers in private language schools) do not generally hold the PGCE.
[edit] Professional associations and unions
TESOL Inc. is Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, a professional organization based in the United States. In addition, there are many large state-wide and regional affiliates..
IATEFL is the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language, a professional organization based in the United Kingdom.
Professional organisations for teachers of English exist at national levels. Many contain phrases in their title such as the Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT) or the Society of Pakistan English Language Teachers (SPELT). Some of these organisations may be bigger in structure (pan-national, such as TESOL Arabia in the Gulf states), or smaller (limited to one city, state, or province, such as CATESOL in California). Some are affiliated to TESOL or IATEFL.
NATECLA is the National Association for Teaching English and other Community Languages to Adults, which focuses on teaching ESOL in the United Kingdom.
National Union of General Workers is a Japanese union which includes English teachers.
[edit] Acronyms and abbreviations
See also: Language education for information on general language teaching acronyms and abbreviations.
[edit] Types of English
BE – Business English
EAL – English as an additional language
The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
EAP – English for academic purposes
EFL – English as a foreign language
English for use in a non-English-speaking region, by someone whose first language is not English. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
EIL – English as an international language
ELF – English as a lingua franca
ELL – English language learner
The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
ELT – English language teaching
The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
ESL – English as a second language
English for use in an English-speaking region, by someone whose first language is not English. The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
ESOL – English for speakers of other languages
This term is used differently in different countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
ESP – English for special purposes, or English for specific purposes (e.g. technical English, scientific English, English for medical professionals, English for waiters).
TEFL – Teaching English as a foreign language This link is to a page about a subset of TEFL, namely travel-teaching.
More generally, see the discussion in Terminology and types.
TESL – Teaching English as a second language
The use of this term is restricted to certain countries. See the discussion in Terminology and types.
TESOL – Teaching English to speakers of other languages, or Teaching English as a second or other language
See the discussion in Terminology and types.
TYLE – Teaching Young Learners English
Note that YL Young Learners can mean under 18, or much younger.
[edit] Other abbreviations
BULATS – Business Language Testing Services, a computer-based test of business English, produced by CambridgeEsol. The test also exists for French, German, and Spanish.
CELTA – Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults
DELTA – Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults
IELTS – International English Language Testing System
LTE – London Tests of English by Pearson Language Assessments
NATE – National Association for the Teaching of English
TOEFL – Test of English as a Foreign Language
TOEIC – Test of English for International Communication
UCLES – University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, an exam board
[edit] References and notes
^ The Basic Skills Agency [1]
^ Saskatchewan Learning [2]
^ Cf. Ogden, Charles K. (1934), The System of Basic English, New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., and Templer, Bill (2005), “Towards a People’s English: Back to BASIC in EIL”, Humanising Language Teaching September 2005.
^ Cf. van Ek, J.A. / Alexander, L.G. (1980), Threshold Level English, Oxford: Pergamon.
^ Cf. Grzega, Joachim (2005), “Reflection on Concepts of English for Europe: British English, American English, Euro-English, Global English”, Journal for EuroLinguistiX 2: 44-64, and Grzega, Joachim (2005), “Towards Global English via Basic Global English (BGE): Socioeconomic and Pedagogic Ideas for a European and Global Language (with Didactic Examples for Native Speakers of German), Journal for EuroLinguistiX 2: 65-164.
^ Cf. Quirk, Randolph (1981), “International Communication and the Concept of Nuclear English”, in: Smith, Larry E. (ed.), English for Cross-Cultural Communication, 151-165, London: Macmillan, and Stein, Gabriele (1979), “Nuclear English: Reflections on the Structure of Its Vocabulary”, Poetica (Tokyo) 10: 64-76.
^ Sources for this are found at the university websites. Given that there are thousands of tertiary institutions that accept one or more of these for entrance requirements, they simply can not be footnoted individually here
[edit] See also
[edit] Language terminology
Second language
Foreign language
[edit] General language teaching and learning
Language education
Second language acquisition
Applied linguistics
[edit] English language teaching and learning
Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL), for an extended discussion of travel-teaching
Non-native pronunciations of English
[edit] Contemporary English
English language
American and British English differences
English studies
International English
[edit] Other
List of countries by English-speaking population
Ruth Hayman – ESL pioneer
Education by subject (Portal)
Agricultural · Art · Bilingual · Chemistry · Language · Legal · Mathematics · Medical · Military · Music · Peace · Performing arts · Physics · Reading · Religious · Science · Sex · Technology · Vocational · More…
[edit] External links
Note. Please see Wikipedia:External links for guidelines regarding appropriate external links.
TESOL International
NCELA – National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition
International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language
Open Directory listing of ELLT-related websites
TESL
Teaching English as a Second Language
The TESL program at HPU features solid curricula with three types of courses:
Linguistic theory courses taught from an applied viewpoint help the TESL student better understand languages in general, and English in particular.
Pedagogy courses present a wide range of current approaches, methods, and techniques for teaching language in a wide variety of contexts. In these classes, teaching demonstrations and videotaped peer practice sessions are used extensively.
Practicum courses allow the future teacher to observe master teachers, serve with them in the classroom as assistants, and finally assume full class responsibility themselves as practice teachers.
Program Objectives
Upon completion of the TESL program, students will have a basic understanding of language variation, language acquisition, and TESL/TEFL methodology. They will have had experience in observing, participating in, and assisting ESL teachers in their classrooms. They will be able to design creative and practical ESL lesson plans, taking into account the linguistic cultural and educational backgrounds of the students. Finally, they will be able to teach and evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching. This general statement of the program objectives can be broken down in detail as follows:
1. Students will demonstrate excellence in their verbal and written English skills.
2. Students will be able to analyze
a. various aspects of English pronunciation,
b. syntactic constructions of English sentences, and
c. pronunciation and syntactic errors.
3. Students will be able to use basic terminology from the subfields of linguistics to discuss issues related to language learning and teaching.
4. Students will demonstrate an understanding of the stages, complexities, and current models of first and second language acquisition.
5. Students will understand how language variation is affected by social class, ethnic group, gender, context, geography, history and contact with other languages.
6. Students will be able to articulate how sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic theory interact with second language learning and teaching.
7. Students will demonstrate proficiency in the following teaching tasks:
a. critical evaluation of ESL or EFL texts,
b. preparation and evaluation of lessons, tests, and assignments,
c. correction of errors, and
d. appropriate response to student needs in a given class.
8. Students will develop a professional approach to teaching which demonstrates the ability to develop and implement appropriate instructional plans and the capacity for self-reflection and self-critique.
Buddhism and eastern teaching
Taoism
“Gathering the Light” from the Taoist book The Secret of the Golden Flower, translated by C. G. Jung and Richard WilhelmMain article: Taoism
The relationships between Taoism and Buddhism are complex, as they influenced each other in many ways while often competing for influence. Taoism in its early form was a mixture of early mythology, folk religion, and Taoist philosophy. The arrival of Buddhism forced Taoism to renew and restructure itself into a more organized religion, while addressing similar existential questions raised by Buddhism. Early buddhism was sometimes seen as a kind of foreign relative of Taoism and its scriptures were often translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary. Ch’an Buddhism in particular holds many beliefs in common with philosophical Taoism.
[edit] Confucianism
Main article: Confucianism
Confucianism in particular raised fierce opposition to Buddhism in early history, principally due to what it views as negative impact of Buddhist nihilistic worldview on society at large. The prominence of Confucianism in the Chinese society forced Buddhism to endorse certain uniquely Confucianist values. Over time as Buddhism became increasingly accepted by the Chinese intellectual class, relation between these two philosophies became more symbiotic. For example, Buddhism shares many commonalities with Neo-Confucianism, which is Confucianism with more religious elements.
[edit] Shintoism
Main article: Shinto
In the Japanese religion of Shinto, the long coexistence of Buddhism and Shintoism resulted in the merging of Shintoism and Buddhism. Gods in Shintoism were given a position similar to that of Hindu gods in Buddhism. Moreover, because the Buddha Vairochana’s symbol was the sun, many equated Amaterasu, the sun goddess, as his previous bodhisattva reincarnation. The later Tokugawa Shogunate era saw a revival of Shinto, and some Shinto scholars began to argue that Buddhas were previous incarnations of Shinto gods, reversing the traditional positions of the two religions. Shinto and Buddhism were officially separated during the Meiji Restoration and the brief, but impacting rise of State Shinto followed. In post-war modern Japan, most families count themselves as being of both religions, despite the idea of “official separation”.
teaching speaking
Teaching Speaking
Speaking lessons often tie in pronunciation and grammar (discussed elsewhere in this guide), which are necessary for effective oral communication. Or a grammar or reading lesson may incorporate a speaking activity. Either way, your students will need some preparation before the speaking task. This includes introducing the topic and providing a model of the speech they are to produce. A model may not apply to discussion-type activities, in which case students will need clear and specific instructions about the task to be accomplished. Then the students will practice with the actual speaking activity.
These activities may include imitating (repeating), answering verbal cues, interactive conversation, or an oral presentation. Most speaking activities inherently practice listening skills as well, such as when one student is given a simple drawing and sits behind another student, facing away. The first must give instructions to the second to reproduce the drawing. The second student asks questions to clarify unclear instructions, and neither can look at each other’s page during the activity. Information gaps are also commonly used for speaking practice, as are surveys, discussions, and role-plays. Speaking activities abound; see the Activities and Further Resources sections of this guide for ideas.
Here are some ideas to keep in mind as you plan your speaking activities.
- Content
As much as possible, the content should be practical and usable in real-life situations. Avoid too much new vocabulary or grammar, and focus on speaking with the language the students have. - Correcting Errors
You need to provide appropriate feedback and correction, but don’t interrupt the flow of communication. Take notes while pairs or groups are talking and address problems to the class after the activity without embarrassing the student who made the error. You can write the error on the board and ask who can correct it. - Quantity vs. Quality
Address both interactive fluency and accuracy, striving foremost for communication. Get to know each learner’s personality and encourage the quieter ones to take more risks. - Conversation Strategies
Encourage strategies like asking for clarification, paraphrasing, gestures, and initiating (‘hey,’ ‘so,’ ‘by the way’). - Teacher Intervention
If a speaking activity loses steam, you may need to jump into a role-play, ask more discussion questions, clarify your instructions, or stop an activity that is too difficult or boring.
Top 10 Ways to Introduce Vocabulary
Top 10 Ways to Introduce Vocabulary
From Tania Iveson
Teachers often explain new vocabulary to learners. Lexical items can include single words (house), collocations (make a bed) and longer chunks (once in a blue moon).
To illustrate meaning, our default mode is often to give a definition. With definitions, drawbacks include a lack of context, a need to use equally complex terms, and the temptation to provide other meanings of new words.
As teachers, we can add other ways of teaching lexis to our “teaching tool belt.” For students, the method we choose to illustrate is often the key to making the item meaningful and useable. Here are ten ways to illustrate lexis.
1. Synonyms
Using items with a similar meaning can be useful. Adjectives such as intelligent have several synonyms: bright, smart, clever. Phrasal verbs usually have a non-phrasal verb equivalent: go off – explode. Teachers should be wary of saying that items have the same meaning. Often, the meaning is close, but there are differences in formality, connotation, and grammatical usage.
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2. Antonyms
Opposites are a common way to present and learn the meaning of new lexis. At lower levels, items such as rich and poor are obvious examples. Again, teachers should be mindful of making generalizations. Rich people and poor people are opposites, but rich food and poor food are not. Collocations are helpful here. At higher levels, prefixes and suffixes are excellent for vocabulary building through opposites e.g. helpful and unhelpful.
3. Drawing
The most basic sketch or stick figures can provide the perfect medium to illustrate certain items. Some good examples include geographical terms like estuary or peninsular, statistical features of graphs like peak, trough, or go through the roof, and physical terms such as back-to-back. Artistic skills are not required!
4. Points on a scale
A scale is an excellent way to illustrate the meaning of several gradable items at the same time. Common examples include adverbs of frequency: never-rarely-occasionally-sometimes, or adjectives of fear: apprehensive-nervous-scared-terrified. Less common items such as petrified can be added to the scale at higher levels. Where appropriate, teachers can add useful information such as prepositional usage on the scale. For example: nervous about and scared of.
5. Cuisenaire rods
These coloured blocks are wonderful teaching aids, and are especially useful for certain lexical areas. Key examples include prepositions of place: on, under, between, among, comparison of adjectives: bigger than, the smallest, twice as big as. Blocks can also represent items in a narrative to act as a visual aid to comprehension.
6. Pictures
For pre-planned teaching of lexis, taking pictures to class can convey a great deal of lexical information very quickly. Nouns and verbs relating to specific places such as kitchens, airports or offices work well with pictures. Parts of machines or living creatures show well in picture format too. Of course, having internet access in the classroom will provide many pictures through sources like Google images.
7. Mime
Mime, often overlooked by teachers, is extremely effective for many items. Instead of defining proud, fold your arms as if carrying a newborn, puff out your chest and whisper, “My son”. Then ask the class how you feel and provide the word if necessary. Another useful exercise is to mime an everyday routine such as getting ready for work, driving, or preparing a meal. Ask students to jot down any verbs they see. This is an excellent test of recall and a good needs-analysis activity.
8. Sound
Making the sound is a quick and easy illustration of many words: whistle, groan, howl, clear one’s throat, snap your fingers etc. Recordings of sound effects are an evocative way of bringing less familiar lexis into the lesson. Listening to a sequence of sounds such as rustling, scratching, tapping, and tinkling glass provides clear illustration, a need to describe the sound, and an effective way of fixing the concept in the student’s mind.
9. Total physical response (TPR)
Aspects of this approach to language learning can help students take control of new language. After illustrating physical lexis such as stare, peer, glance, and blink, the teacher can ask students to perform the action after the words are given. This can be used for more complex items such as peel an apple and change a tire.
10. Realia
Where practical, bringing the actual item to class provides an unmistakeably clear illustration of an object. This can also provide a useful stimulus to a lesson. On a slightly more ambitious scale, asking students to teach other students how to perform a task using realia can be very motivating and memorable. Examples include how to prepare a salad, how to send a text message using a particular cellphone, and how to play a card game.
This is not an exhaustive list. The most important thing is to anticipate what lexis you might have to clarify and then choose the technique(s) that best helps illustrate meaning.
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Miskin dan Kaya
Miskin dan Kaya
Ada orang kaya yang miskin, ada orang kaya yang kaya, ada orang yang miskin yang miskin, dan ada orang miskin yang kaya.
Uang dan materi itu tidak kotor, tidak jelek, tidak racun. Boleh dicari, boleh disimpan, tetapi jangan dipandang sebagai milik, jangan dipandang sebagai harta. Uang dan materi harus dipandang sebagai sarana atau alat. Sarana untuk melakukan amal kebaikan. Kalau saya mempunyai uang lebih banyak, tentu saya mempunyai sarana untuk melakukan amal kebaikan lebih banyak. Kalau saya mempunyai kendaraan, saya mempunyai sarana untuk melakukan amal kebaikan yang lebih banyak ketimbang saya tidak mempunyai kendaraan.
Jadi kalau orang-orang mampu yang merasa dirinya kaya, atau yang disebut kaya, bisa menggunakan materinya iotu sebagai alat untuk melakukan kebaikan, itulah orang kaya yang sungguh kaya: kaya materi dan kaya kebajikan!.
Tetapi, orang kaya yang sebenarnya miskin akan memandang materi atau uang yang didapat itu sebagai milikku atau hartaku.
Materi itu bersifat netral. Pisau itu netral, bukan bersifat jahat dan juga bukannya baik. Hanya bagaimana kita mempunyai sudut pandang yang benar terhadap materi. Materi jangan dipandang sebagai milik atau kekayaan, pandanglah sebagai alat atau sarana.
Orang miskin yang berusaha menjadi orang mampu dengan cara jahat, itulah orang miskin yang benar-benar miskin. Tetapi, orang yang miskin materi, yang berusaha untuk memberikan kebaikan pada masyarakat, sesuai dengan kemampuannya, dialah orang miskin yang kaya. Miskin materi, tetapi kaya dengan kebajikan.
Kalau seseorang miskin materi, dia sendiri yang miskin. Akan tetapi, bila orang tega mengorbankan orang lain hingga orang lain itu menjadi miskin, kalau tidak dicegah dia bisa membuat korban yang lebih banyak lagi. Sesungguhnya kemiskinan moral itu jauh lebih berbahaya ketimbang kemiskinan materi.
